Adult Learning Styles: A Resource Guide
David P. Bunnell
Introduction to Learning Styles
The concept of learning styles has a long history through the last century and has its roots in the early pragmatist philosopher Williams James and the psychology of Carl Jung. Learning style theory has evolved over the years and taken many forms. Learning styles are closely related to and draw upon research in cognitive styles, epistemology, brain physiology, cultural study, and learning theory.
Learning styles can be most simply defined as the individual learner’s behavioral characteristics related to how that leaner processes information and integrates it into their own knowledge base. James and Gardner (1995) define learning style as the “complex manner in which, and conditions under which, learners most efficiently and most effectively perceive, process, store, and recall what they are attempting to learn” (p.20). Learning style theory research is dependent on various instruments created to assess individual learning styles.
The many learning style theories can be broken down in different ways. The model used in this research guide is dimensional model of James and Gardner (1995): perceptual, cognitive, and affective (Brown 1998):
Perceptual learning style theories concentrate on the physical and sensory elements that leaner uses to interpret external stimuli. Perceptual leaning style theories usually include such learning dimensions as the visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic. Currently, perceptual theorists are expanding their research to include cultural and gender differences. The most used instrument by perceptual learning style theorists is the Multi-Model Paired Associates Learning Test (MMPALT) (James and Gardner 1995).
The cognitive learning style theories are based on the ways the learner processes information. Cognitive learning styles are interested in research into brain physiology and function. Research into hemispheric brain function, psychological orientation, and field articulation are usually incorporated in cognitive learning style theories. David A. Kolb’s theories are probably the most used in adult education. Kolb identifies different types of learners: concrete, abstract, reflective, and active. He uses these different types to describe how learners process information--divergers and assimilators--and how they absorb experience--convergers and accommodators (Brown 1998).
Affective learning style theories are concerned with all aspects of the learner’s personality. In these learning theories personality traits are the basis for how a leaner interprets and absorbs information. Affective learning theories use research in social and cultural experiences, environmental influences, genetic influences, and interpersonal experiences. The two most prominent affective learning style theories are the Wikin’s Bipolar Construct of Field Dependence and Field Independence and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI is the most famous instrument used in assessing learning style and “assess the relative strength of the processes of introversion versus extraversion, sensing versus intuition, thinking versus feeling, and judging versus perception.” (Brown 1998)
There are many recent attempts to synthesize the various learning style theories and incorporate current research. James and Gardner (1995) have identified several instruments that attempt to address all three different dimensions of learning style theory: the Productivity Environmental Preference Survey, Learning Styles Inventory Reliability Report, and the Learning Style Profile. Another multi-dimensional model that is often used is that of Dunn and Dunn (1978).
Uses of This Research Guide
This research guide is just a sampling of the vast literature of learning styles and is focused on those learning style theories that are used most often in adult education. The guide is divided into types of resources found (inventories, journal articles, web-based resources, and books -- both festschriften and monograph) and limited to the most cited works found over the last three decades.
The research guide is also part of a wider initiative of professional development for the faculty and staff of Griffin Technical College in Griffin, Georgia. In March 2003, four two in-service workshops on Adult Learning Theory and Adult Learning Style based on the Kolb model where conducted. Participant evaluations were very positive with the most common criticism being the desire to have more time with the subject of the workshop. The results were encouraging enough to provide a basis for further in-service workshops on the practical application of Adult Learning Style Theory in a technical education setting. The outline of the workshop is included as an appendix to this guide.
Web-Based Resources
Center for Advancement of Learning: Muskingum College. (2003). The Learning Strategies Database, [Website]. Available: http://www.muskingum.edu/home/cal/index.html.
Hay/McBear, T. (2003). Kolb learning styles instrument, [Website]. Available: http://trgmcber.haygroup.com/
Honolulu Community College. (2003). The VARK inventory, [Website]. Available: http://www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/vark.htm.
Howtolearn.com. (2003). Personal Learning Style Inventory, [Website]. Available: http://www.howtolearn.com/personal.html.
Institute for Learning Styles Research. (2003). Perceptual Modality Preference Survey, [Website]. Available: http://www.learningstyles.org/survey/index.html.
Learning Disabilities Resource Community (2003). Projects multiple intelligences inventory, [Website]. Available: http://www.ldrc.ca/projects/miinventory/miinventory.php.
Learning Disabilities Resource Community (2003). Projects Sternberg-Wagner thinking styles inventory, [Website]. Available: http://www.ldrc.ca/projects/tscale/?PHPSESSID=6a373a762df236fa5f4f2ef15f3652a0.
Loyola University of Chicago (2003). Ed Psyc Central: Adult Learning, [Website]. Available: http://homepages.luc.edu/~hweiman/page9adulted.html
Mind Tools (2003). Memory techniques – How your learning style affects your use of mnemonics, [Website]. Available: http://www.mindtools.com/mnemlsty.html.
Myers-Briggs personality types. (2003), [Website]. Available: http://interconnections.co.uk/.
Neuro-Linguistic programming. (2003), [Website]. Available: http://www.purenlp.com/society/.
Pedagogy: Learning Styles. (2003), [Website]. Available: http://www.cyg.net/~jblackmo/diglib/styl-a.html.
Pedagogy: Learning Styles: Adult Learning Styles. (2003), [Website]. Available: http://www.cyg.net/~jblackmo/diglib/styl-c.html.
Solomon, B. (2003). Index of learning styles questionnaire, [Website]. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University. Available: http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/ILSdir/ilsweb.html.
Support 4 Learning (2003). Learning styles, [Website]. Available: http://www.support4learning.org.uk/education/lstyles.htm#General.
University of Toledo (2003). Adult Learning Styles, [Website]. Available: http://education.utoledo.edu//par/Adults.html.
University of Toronto (2003). Adult Education FAQS: Kolb, [Website]. Available: http://fcis.oise.utoronto.ca/~daniel_schugurensky/faqs/qa8.html.
University of Toronto (2003). Learning, [Website]. Available: http://home.oise.utoronto.ca/~dsymington/LearningStyles.html.
Wang, Po-Ching. (2003). Gardner's Multiple Intelligences. Penn State Educational Systems Design Home Page: Penn State University, [Website]. Available: http://www.ed.psu.edu/dept/ae-insys-wfed/INSYS/ESD/Key/Keyschoo/key1.htm
Winters, Elaine. (2003). Seven Styles of Learning: The Part they Play When Developing Interactivity, [Website]. Available: http://www.bena.com/ewinters/styles.html
Journal Articles
Andrews, J. D. W. (1981). Teaching Format and Student Style: Their Interactive Effects on Learning. Research in Higher Education, 14(2), 161-178.
Bevel, C., & As alone, G. (2001). An Exploration of Adult Learning Styles: Doesn't Everyone Learn Similarly? Michigan Community College Journal: Research & Practice, 7(2), 41-59.
Brainard, S. R., & Ommen, J. L. (1977). Men, Women, and Learning Styles. Community College Frontiers, 5, 3, 32-36, Spr 77.
Briggs, A. R. J. (2000). Promoting Learning Style Analysis among Vocational Students. Education + Training, 42(1), 16-23.
Buch, K., & Bartley, S. (2002). Learning Style and Training Delivery Mode Preference. Journal of Workplace Learning, 14(1), 5-10.
Cano-Garcia, F., & Hughes, E. H. (2000). Learning and Thinking Styles: An Analysis of Their Interrelationship and Influence on Academic Achievement. Educational Psychology: An International Journal of Experimental Educational Psychology, 20(4), 413-430.
Claxton, C. S. (1990). Learning Styles, Minority Students, and Effective Education. Journal of Developmental Education, 14(1), 6-8,35.
Conti, G. J. (1985). The relationship between teaching style and adult student learning. Adult Education Quarterly, 35(Summer), 220-228.
Conti, G. J., & Fellenz, R. A. (1991). Teaching Adults: Tribal Colleges Must Respond to the Unique Needs--and Talents--of Adult Students. Tribal College, Journal of American Indian Higher Education| v2 n4 p18-23 Spr 1991, 2(4).
Conti, G. J., & Welborn, R. B. (1986). Teaching-Learning Styles and the Adult Learner. Lifelong Learning, 9(8), 20-23,24.
Cornwell, J. M., & Manfredo, P. A. (1994). Kolb's Learning Style Theory Revisited. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 54(2), 317-327.
Davidson, B. S., & et al. (1989). How to Meet the Needs of the Community College Diverse Adult Student Population. Journal of Adult Education, 18(2), 25-31.
Delahoussaye, M. (2002). The Perfect Learner: An Expert Debate on Learning Styles. Training, 39(5), 28-36.
Diaz, D. P., & Cartnal, R. B. (1999). Students' Learning Styles in Two Classes: Online Distance Learning and Equivalent On-Campus. College Teaching, 47(4), 130-135.
Diaz, I. R., & English, R. A. (1987). Preferred Learning Styles of Community College Career and Transfer Students. Community/Junior College Quarterly of Research and Practice, 11(4), 227-238.
Dixon, N. (1980). Recognized Learning and Teaching Styles: Who Is Responsible? Community College Frontiers, 8(4), 32-36.
Drysdale, M. T. B., Ross, J. L., & Schultz, R. A. (2001). Cognitive Learning Styles and Academic Performance in 19 First-Year University Courses: Successful Students versus Students at Risk. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk (JESPAR), 6(3), 271-289.
Duckwall, J. M., & et al. (1991). Approaches to Learning by Undergraduate Students: A Longitudinal Study. Research in Higher Education, 32(1), 1-13.
Eubank, T. F., & Sparks, B. I., III. (1993). The Relationship between Hemispheric Preference and Learning Style. Journal of Optometric Education, 19(1), 22-25.
Felder, R. M., & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning and Teaching Styles in Engineering Education. Engineering Education, 78(7), 674-681.
Ferrell, B. G. (1983). A Factor Analytic Comparison of Four Learning-Styles Instruments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(1), 33-39.
Filipczak, B. (1995). Different Strokes: Learning Styles in the Classroom. Training, 32(3), 43-48.
Fogarty, G. J., & Taylor, J. A. (1997). Learning Styles Among Mature-Age Students: Some Comments on the "Approaches to Studying Inventory" (ASI-S). Higher Education Research and Development, 16(3), 321-330.
Galotti, K. M., Drebus, D. W., & Reimer, R. L. (2001). Ways of Knowing as Learning Styles: Learning MAGIC with a Partner. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 44(7-8), 419-436.
Garton, B. L., Dyer, J. E., & King, B. O. (2000). The Use of Learning Styles and Admission Criteria in Predicting Academic Performance and Retention of College Freshmen. Journal of Agricultural Education, 41(2), 46-53.
Grasha, A. F., & Yangarber-Hicks, N. (2000). Integrating Teaching Styles and Learning Styles with Instructional Technology. College Teaching, 48(1), 2-10.
Grasha, T. (1990). The Naturalistic Approach to Learning Styles. College Teaching, 38(3), 106-113.
Green, D., & Parker, R. M. (1989). Vocational and Academic Attributes of Students with Different Learning Styles. Journal of College Student Development, 30(5), 395-400.
Grimes, S. K. (1995). Targeting Academic Programs to Student Diversity Utilizing Learning Styles and Learning-Study Strategies. Journal of College Student Development, 36(5), 422-430.
Gusentine, S. D., & Keim, M. C. (1996). The Learning Styles of Community College Art Students. Community College Review, 24(3), 17-26.
Hankins, G. (1974). Motivation and Individual Learning Styles. Engineering Education, 64, 6, 408-411, Mar 74.
Hayes, J., & Allinson, C. W. (1997). Learning Styles and Training and Development in Work Settings: Lessons from Educational Research. Educational Psychology, 17(1-2), 185-193.
Henson, M., & Schmeck, R. R. (1993). Learning Styles of Community College versus University Students. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 76(1), 118.
Hunter, W. E. (1980). Relationships between Learning Styles, Grades, and Student Ratings of Instruction. Community/Junior College Research Quarterly, 5(1), 73-84.
James, W. B., & Gardner, D. L. (1995). Learning Styles: Implications for Distance Learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education(67), 19-31.
James, W. B. B., William E. (1991). A comparison of perceptual learning styles of adult high school graduates and non-graduates. Adult Basic Education, 1(Summer), 98-106.
Kalous, T. D. (1990). Helping College Students Change Their Learning Styles. Journal of College and Adult Reading and Learning, 1(1), 54-63.
King, J. (1995). Learning Styles and Absenteeism: Is There a Connection? Journal of the Freshman Year Experience, 7(1), 67-82.
King, J. M. (1997). Brain Function Research: Guideposts for Brain-Compatible Teaching and Learning. Journal of General Education, 46(4), 276-288.
Kirby, J. R., & et al. (1988). Verbal and Visual Learning Styles. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 13(2), 169-184.
Kraft, R. E. (1976). An Analysis of Student Learning Styles. Physical Educator, 33, 3, 140-2, Oct 76.
Krause, L. B. (1998). The Cognitive Profile Model of Learning Styles. Journal of College Science Teaching, 28(1), 57-61.
Laurillard, D. (1979). The Processes of Student Learning. Higher Education, 8(4), 395-409.
Lawson, A. E., & Johnson, M. (2002). The Validity of Kolb Learning Styles and Neo-Piagetian Developmental Levels in College Biology. Studies in Higher Education, 27(1), 79-90.
Lemire, D. (2001). An Introduction to Learning Styles for College Teachers. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 32(1), 86-92.
Lockhart, D., & Schmeck, R. R. (1983). Learning Styles and Classroom Evaluation Methods: Different Strokes for Different Folks. College Student Journal, 17(1), 94-100.
Matthews, D. B. (1991). Learning Styles of Education Majors: Are They Similar to Those of Other Students? SRATE Journal, 1(1), 28-32.
Matthews, D. B. (1991). The Effects of Learning Style on Grades of First-Year College Students. Research in Higher Education, 32(3), 253-268.
Matthews, D. B. (1994). An Investigation of Students' Learning Styles in Various Disciplines in Colleges and Universities. Journal of Humanistic Education and Development, 33(2), 65-74.
Matthews, D. B., & Hamby, J. V. (1995). A Comparison of the Learning Styles of High School and College/University Students. Clearing House, 68(4), 257-261.
Mickler, M. L., & Zippert, C. P. (1987). Teaching Strategies Based on Learning Styles of Adult Students. Community/Junior College Quarterly of Research and Practice, 11(1), 33-37.
Miglietti, C. L., & Strange, C. C. (1998). Learning Styles, Classroom Environment Preferences, Teaching Styles, and Remedial Course Outcomes for Underprepared Adults at a Two-Year College. Community College Review, 26(1), 1-19.
Miller, C. D., & et al. (1987). Effects of Learning Styles and Strategies on Academic Success. Journal of College Student Personnel, 28(5), 399-404.
Moszynski, J. T. (1995). Comparing Learning Styles of Students. Michigan Community College Journal: Research & Practice, 1(1), 69-77.
Murrell, P. H., & Claxton, C. S. (1987). Experiential Learning Theory as a Guide for Effective Teaching. Counselor Education and Supervision, 27(1), 4-14.
Nelson, B. D., Rita Stafford; Griggs, Shirley A. (1993). Effects of learning style intervention on college students' retention and achievement. Journal of College Student Development, 34(September), 364-369.
Niles, T. R., & Mustachio, J. A. (1978). Self-Concept, Learning Styles, and Grade Achievement. Community College Frontiers, 7(1), 44-47.
Nulty, D. D., & Barrett, M. A. (1996). Transitions in Students' Learning Styles. Studies in Higher Education, 21(3), 333-345.
Ommen, J. L., & et al. (1979). Learning Preferences of Younger and Older Students. Community College Frontiers, 7(3), 29-33.
Orr, B. P., Ok; Thompson, Dale, Thompson, Cecelia. (1999). Learning styles of postsecondary students enrolled in vocational technical institutes. Journal of Industrial Teacher Educatoin, 36(Summer), 5-20.
Philbin, M., et. al. (1995). A Survey of Gender and Learning Styles. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 32(7-8), 485-494.
Piland, W. E., & et al. (1990). Preferred Learning Styles and Teaching Strategies in the Honors Classroom. Community/Junior College Quarterly of Research and Practice, 14(3), 227-237.
Pinto, J. K., & et al. (1994). A Three-Year Longitudinal Study of Changes in Student Learning Styles. Journal of College Student Development, 35(2), 113-119.
Reynolds, J. G., Martin. (1991). Learning style characteristics of adult dependent decision makers: counseling and instructional implications. The Career Development Quarterly, 40(December), 145-154.
Robertson, J. (1997). MBTI and College Students. Learning Assistance Review, 2(2), 35-42.
Rothschild, J., & Piland, W. E. (1994). Intercorrelates of Postsecondary Students' Learning Styles and Personality Traits. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 18(2), 177-188.
Schell, J. W. (1993). A framework for learning advanced postsecondary vocational-technical skills. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 17(July/August), 357-374.
Schroeder, C. C. (1993). New Students--New Learning Styles. Change, 25(4), 21-26.
Smith, E. R., & Standal, T. C. (1981). Learning Styles and Study Techniques. Journal of Reading, 24(7), 599-602.
Spoon, J. C. S., John W. (1998). Aligning student learning styles with instructor teaching styles. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 35(2), 41-56.
Staiger, E. H. (1987). A Preliminary Analysis of Guided Design Using Jungian Typology. Engineering Education, 77(5), 309-312.
Stice, J. E. (1987). Using Kolb's Learning Cycle to Improve Student Learning. Engineering Education, 77(5), 291-296.
Truluck, J. E. C., Bradley C. (1999). Learning style preferences among older adults. Educational Gerontology, 25(3), 221-236.
Vermunt, J. D. (1996). Metacognitive, Cognitive, and Affective Aspects of Learning Styles and Strategies: A Phenomenographic Analysis. Higher Education, 31(1), 25-50.
Villa, R. E., & Lukes, E. A. (1980). A Multiple System Approach to Applying the Cognitive Style of Learning. Community College Social Science Journal, 3(1), 19-25.
West, R. F. (1982). A Construct Validity Study of Kolb's Learning Style Types in Medical Education. Journal of Medical Education, 57(10), t1.
Willett, L. H., & Adams, F. G. (1985). Learning Style Preferences of External Degree Students. Innovative Higher Education, 10(1), 55-65.
Williams, E. H., Jr., & et al. (1989). What Can We Learn from the Learning Styles of Developmental Students? Reading Improvement, 26(4), 281-289.
Books and Other Documents
Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Bransford, J. D., et. al. edt. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School (Expanded ed.). Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Brown, B. L. (1998). Learning Styles and Vocational Education Practice (ERIC Practice Application Brief). District of Columbia: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education.
Brualdi, A. C. (1996). Multiple Intelligences: Gardner's Theory. ERIC Digest (EDO-TM-96-01). District of Columbia: ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation, Washington, DC. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC.
Claxton, C. S., & Murrell, P. H. (1988). Learning Styles. ERIC Digest (EDO-HE-88-6). Tennessee: ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education, Washington, DC. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC.
Curry, L. (1987). Integrating Concepts of Cognitive or Learning Style: A Review with Attention to Psychometric Standards. Ottawa: Canadian College of Health Service Executives.
Dunn, R., Dunn, K. (1978). Teaching Students through their Individual Learning Styles: A Practical Approach. Reston, VA: Reston Publishing.
Dunn, R., Griggs, S. A. (1995). Multiculturalism and Learning Styles. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers, Greenwood Press.
Griggs, S. A. (1991). Learning Styles Counseling. ERIC Digest (EDO-CG-91-5). Michigan: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services, Ann Arbor, MI. Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED), Washington, DC. Center for Libraries and Education Improvement.
Keefe, J. W. (1989). Learning Style Profile Handbook: Accommodating Perceptual, Study, and Instructional Preferences (Vol. II). Reston, VA: National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Pollio, H. R. (1996). The Two Cultures of Pedagogy: Teaching and Learning in the Natural Sciences and the Humanities. Tennessee: Tennessee Univ., Knoxville. Learning Research Center.
Riding, R., Rayner S. (1998). Cognitive Styles and Learning Strategies: Understanding Style Differences in Learning and Behaviour. London: David Fulton Publishers.
Schmeck, R. R. (1983). Learning Styles of College Students. In R. Dillon. (Ed.), Individual Differences in Cognition (pp. 233-279). New York: Academic Press.
Silver, H. F., Strong, R. W., Perini, M. J. (2000). So Each May Learn: Integrating Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Sternberg, R. J., Zhang, L. edt. (2001). Perspectives on Thinking, Learning, and Cognitive Styles. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Swanson, L. J. (1995). Learning Styles: A Review of the Literature (ED 387067).
Tendy, S. M., Geiser, W. F. (1997). The Search for Style: It All Depends on Where You Look (ED 410029).
Witkin, H. A. (1954). Personality through Perception: An Experimental and Clinical Study. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Learning Styles Inventories
Dunn, R., Dunn, K., Price, G. (1985). Manual: Learning Style Inventory. Lawrence, KS: Price Systems.
Dunn, R., Dunn, K, Price, G. (1982). Manual: Productivity Environmental Preference Survey. Lawrence, KS: Price Systems.
Myers, I. (1978). Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Perrin, J. (1981). Primary Version: Learning Style Inventory. Jamaica, NY: Learning Style Network, St. John's University.